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American Civil War The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. There were many reasons for the war, chief among them the South's dependence on slaves, and the fundamental disagreement of federal control over states' rights. In spite of President Abraham Lincoln's efforts to hold together the union, first South Carolina (in 1860) and then ten more southern states seceded, forming the Confederacy. The four years that followed saw a bloody war of attrition that eventually ended up killing or maiming more than 600,000 people -- in Lincoln's words, "...so costly a sacrifice on the altar of freedom." (By 1865, fully one quarter of the white male population of the South had been killed or maimed.) The war ended on April 9, 1865, when General (later President) Ulysses S. Grant accepted the surrender of General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox, Virginia. Five days later, on April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was assassinated by an actor, John Wilkes Booth, in an attempt to avenge the loss of the South. Web:
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American First Ladies In the United States, the First Lady is the wife of the President. Traditionally, the style of the First Lady has had a significant influence on the fashion and culture of her time. Some first ladies have contributed enormously to the public good, and are remembered as great Americans in their own right, for example, Edith Wilson, Eleanor Roosevelt and Barbara Bush. Web:
American Historical Documents Many people have heard about the most important American historical documents, but few people have had the opportunity to look at the actual texts. Here is your chance. Take a look at the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and its amendments, the Bill of Rights, the Monroe Doctrine, the Japanese and German surrenders, and many, many other important documents. Web:
American History The first permanent English settlements in North America were established in the early 1600s. In less than two hundred years, those settlements, along with other colonies, developed and flourished to the point where they jointly rebelled against Great Britain (1776-1783) and formed the United States of America. Since then, the U.S. has grown to become the most powerful nation in the world, contributing mightily to world culture, economics, science and the waging of war. Web:
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American Memory Collection The Library of Congress has put together these "scrapbooks" of American history and culture. Flip through and look at Civil War photographs, portraits of literary figures, artists and celebrities, photos of rural America, and hear sound recordings of speeches that were delivered around the World War I era. Web: Civil Rights Movement In the 1600s, slavery was widespread in the American colonies. By the early 1800s, the practice had been eliminated in the northern states but, in the South, slavery remained an integral part of the economy until after the Civil War (1861-1865). Since most American slaves had been brought over from Africa, their gradual emancipation left the country with a large, uneducated underclass of black people (the descendents of today's African Americans). For most of the 20th Century, black people in the U.S. lived in a hostile and discriminating culture, especially in the South. In the 1950s, the post-war American political climate gave rise to the Civil Rights Movement, an organized effort to bring full rights to black people and, by extension, to all Americans. During the next 20 years, the rights of blacks were secured by a succession of Supreme Court decisions (such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas: 1954, which outlawed segregation in public schools), and federal legislation (such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965). The Civil Rights Movement secured the rights of millions of African Americans. In doing so, the movement gave rise to a number of inspiring leaders, the most beloved of whom was Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968), as well as important civil rights organizations, such as the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). In addition, the massive long-term effort created an overall sensitivity to basic freedoms that resulted in civil rights gains for women (the Women's Movement), homosexuals (Gay Liberation), and people with disabilities. The same sensibilities, taken to an extreme, also gave rise to the unfortunate notion of "political correctness", the unspoken assumption that it is imprudent to express ideas, or even use certain words, that conflict with the political agendas of minority groups. Web:
Constitution of the United States of America "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." With those words begin the most important document in American history: the U.S. Constitution, the highest law of the land. Within the document, ideas are described in brief, generalized terms. This was done deliberately, and has two important effects. First, any educated person can read and understand the Constitution. (Try it, and you will see what I mean.) Second, the principles expressed in the Constitution are readily adaptable to changing times, which is one reason the American system of government has worked so well for so long. The Constitution's designers purposely made it slow and difficult to make permanent changes. For that reason, most adaptations are made indirectly, by Congress passing laws or by the Supreme Court issuing rulings. Web:
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Declaration of Arms, 1775 On July 6, 1775, the representatives of the "United Colonies of North-America" met in Philadelphia and issued a document called "Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms". These guys were sick and fed up with the way they were being treated by Great Britain, and this document is the explanation as to why they were rebelling. The document did not mince words. For example, the declaration refers to the members of the British parliament as "stimulated by an inordinate passion" for power, and describes them as being blinded "by their intemperate rage for unlimited domination". Sound familiar? Web:
Declaration of Sentiments In 1848, the first Women's Rights Convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was convened by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, who presented the Declaration of Sentiments, a document based on the Declaration of Independence. This declaration, however, was a list of grievances denouncing the inequality between men and women in the areas of education, religion, employment, property rights, marriage, family and voting. Almost 150 years later, the Declaration of Sentiments still makes for interesting reading. Note: After the Declaration of Sentiments was presented, another 71 years passed before American women were given the right to vote under the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Web:
Emancipation Proclamation In the United States, the expression "Lincoln freed the slaves" is commonly used as an all-purpose rejoinder in certain sticky social situations, such as when your boss tells you to work overtime without extra pay, or when your mother forces you to clean up your room. But just how did Lincoln free the slaves? At the time of the Civil War, Lincoln was president of the Union (the northern states), leading them against the Confederacy (the southern states). On September 17, 1862 -- the bloodiest day of the Civil War -- the Battle of Antietam in western Maryland ended with combined losses of more than 23,000 men. Lincoln used the occasion to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves free in states still in rebellion against the Union. The slaves were not actually freed until April 9, 1865, when the Union won its final victory against the Confederacy. If any of this interests you, take a few minutes to look at the actual proclamation (and at the fine print contained therein). Web:
Federalist Papers Between 1787-1788, a series of 85 political essays -- now called "The Federalist Papers" -- was published in New York. The series was initiated by Alexander Hamilton in order to persuade New York to approve the Federalist Constitution (which they eventually did). Hamilton wrote most of the essays, the others being written by James Madison and John Jay. As they were written, the essays were published in newspapers and were read widely. (Compare this to what you see in modern newspapers.) Even today, the Federalist Papers are acclaimed for their high literary quality and well-developed cogent arguments. Web:
Gettysburg Address From 1861 to 1865, the United States was embroiled in a civil war between the northern states (Union) and the southern states (Confederacy). There were many causes of the war, but the primary reasons for conflict were fundamental disagreements over slavery and federal control of individual states. Approximately halfway through the war, a turning point occurred near the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. On July 1, 1863, General Robert E. Lee (military commander of the Confederacy) attempted to invade the North, but after battling for three days, the Southern troops were routed. More than 43,000 men were killed in those three days. On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln made a speech at the dedication of the new Civil War cemetery in Gettysburg. His beautiful and oft-quoted words express Lincoln's grief for the fallen soldiers and describes the principles for which the men died. Ironically, in the speech Lincoln says, "The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here...", but in fact, the Gettysburg Address is one of the most famous speeches in American history. What American does not recognize the words "four score and seven years ago" and "government of the people, by the people, and for the people"? At this Web site, you will find various drafts of the Gettysburg Address. It is a short, powerful speech, and it shows us why Lincoln is considered one of America's greatest presidents. Web:
Great Depression The Depression, or more formally, the Great Depression, was a long period of economic hardship that lasted from late 1929 to 1937. The downturn in the economy actually started in August of 1929. However, most people were not aware of what was happening until the stock market began to collapse on October 24, 1929 (referred to as "Black Thursday"). Within a short time, the economy of the United States -- and then the rest of the world -- deteriorated significantly and the Depression had begun in earnest. By 1933, U.S. industrial production was down 56 percent from 1929 and over 13,000,000 people, a third of the work force, was out of work. It was not until the late 1930s that the massive government spending in preparation for war finally ended the most devastating economic downturn in modern history. Web:
Historic American Speeches There are a great many wonderful historical speeches that you can read. Here are some you will find interesting: "Why Women Should Vote" (Jane Addams, 1915); "Dangers of a Salaried Bureaucracy" (Benjamin Franklin, 1787); "The Sunny Side of Life" (James Hedley, late 1800s); "I Have a Dream" (Martin Luther King, 1963); "Gettysburg Address" (Abraham Lincoln, 1863); "The Blessings of Slavery" (The Plaindealer, New York newspaper, 1837); "Farewell Address" (George Washington, 1796). If that's not enough, see if you can find the speech I gave to the Pulitzer Prize organization, explaining that they would have to become a bit more prestigious if they wanted me to accept one of their awards. Web:
Native American Treaties In the late 1700s through the late 1800s, there were many treaties signed between the United States government and various Native American (Indian) tribes. Many of these treaties were to have long-lasting effects, some to the present day. I found it fascinating to read some of these treaties. In addition, I was surprised how many well-known names of places are derived from Indian tribal names. Web:
Prohibition In the last several decades of the 19th Century, a number of political groups -- called temperance movements -- arose with the goal of restricting the sale of alcohol in the United States. By the end of World War I (1919), alcohol consumption in the United States had increased so rapidly as to become a serious social problem. At the same time, the brewing industry expanded enormously, resulting in the proliferation of saloons, many of which introduced gambling and prostitution into otherwise law-abiding neighborhoods. As a result, in 1919 Congress passed the 18th Amendment to the Constitution, forbidding the manufacture and sale of alcohol. After the Amendment had been ratified by the states, Congress established it as a law by passing the Volsted Act, ushering in the age of Prohibition. Unfortunately, much of the population never accepted Prohibition (including many politicians and law enforcement officials). This gave rise to a great deal of crime in the form of smuggling and bootlegging (the illegal manufacture and distribution of alcohol). By the early 1930s, the country had had enough. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed, repealing Prohibition, ending the so-called "Noble Experiment". In one sense, however, prohibition was a success. It caused the per capita consumption of alcohol to drop significantly. In fact, it did not regain its former level until 1943, well after Prohibition ended. Web:
Revolutionary War The American Revolution (1775-1783) was a long, drawn-out uprising in which 13 American colonies fought for -- and won -- their independence from Great Britain. For years, the colonists had complained about how they were being governed by England. For example, as far back as 1711, the British parliament had banned the colonists from cutting down trees (in order to reserve all timber for the British navy). It was not until 1764-5, however, that relations began to deteriorate seriously, when the British parliament passed legislation to tax the American colonies. Many of the colonists considered themselves to be Englishman, so paying tax to the British authorities was something they understood. What bothered them was taxation without representation. (The colonists were not allowed to vote and, as such, had no representation in parliament.) The British sent troops to enforce the laws, including tax collection, and in 1765, they passed another law forcing the colonists to provide barracks and supplies for those troops. Over the next few years, relations became even more strained, particularly in Boston, which soon became the hotbed of the independence movement. In 1770, the arrival of British soldiers in Boston provoked a terrible battle with the colonists (later called the "Boston Massacre"). Three years later, in 1773, the colonists vigorously protested a new tax on tea by demanding that several ships, loaded with tea, be sent back to England without being unloaded. The British governor refused and insisted that the tax be paid. As a response, a small group of colonists disguised themselves as Indians, sneaked aboard the ships, and dumped all the tea into the harbor (the so-called "Boston Tea Party"). On April 9, 1775, Paul Revere made his famous ride across the Massachusetts countryside, warning people that the British soldiers were about to attack. Ten days later, on April 19, the revolution started in earnest with the Battle of Lexington and Concord. Among the participants were the Minutemen, a group of armed civilians, who stood ready to help regular soldiers at a moment's notice (hence the name). On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress -- a group of representatives from the 13 colonies -- adopted the Declaration of Independence. This document, written largely by Thomas Jefferson, set forth the goals of the colonists as well as the justification for their actions. Adopting the Declaration of Independence was a crucial turning point. The war, however, was far from over. In 1778, the colonists rejected a proposed British peace offer and, instead, signed treaties with France and Holland. France, in particular, became a valuable ally, even to the point of sending soldiers to fight alongside the Americans. In 1782, peace talks were initiated in Paris, with Benjamin Franklin representing the Americans. In 1783, the war officially ended, and Britain recognized the independence of a brand new country: the United States of America. Why was the American Revolution so important? To be sure, it established the United States as a country in its own right but, beyond that, the long fight for freedom provided Americans with a strong sense of their unique identity, creating what we might call "the American personality": an approach to life that exists to this very day. In addition, the war was a source of many stories and traditions that are an integral part of the American culture, such as Paul Revere's ride and the Boston Tea Party. Finally, the American Revolution had a profound effect on other countries around the world, inspiring a variety of people to fight for their independence. For example, the American experience had a strong influence on the French Revolution, which began in 1789. The importance of the revolution was immortalized by Ralph Waldo Emerson in his poem "Concord Hymn" (1837), in which he refers to the farmers at the Battle of Lexington and Concord as firing "the shot heard round the world". Web:
Richard Nixon Audio and Video Archive People of the younger generations will never know what it was like to hear Richard Nixon address the people of the United States. Thanks to modern technology and the Internet, anyone young or old, can hear the voice of Richard Nixon at any time of the day or night. Listen to his resignation speech, the Checkers speech, a portion of the Nixon/Kennedy debate and his explanation of Watergate. Web:
September 11 Terrorist Attacks On September 11, 2001, the world was stunned to find out that the worst terrorist attacks ever perpetrated in the United States had taken place, one after another, within a short two-hour interval. The first attack came at 8:46 a.m., when a hijacked airplane was deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. About 20 minutes later, at 9:03 a.m., as people around the world watched on television, a second hijacked plane flew into the South Tower. Within the hour, both towers had collapsed. At 9:45 a.m., a third hijacked plane smashed into the southwest side of the Pentagon (the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense), in Arlington, Virginia. Finally, at 10:10 a.m., another plane crashed in a wooded area in Pennsylvania, after passengers confronted hijackers and aborted what was about to become a fourth suicide mission. A total of 3,062 people were killed in the attacks: 2,673 at the World Trade Center, 245 airline passengers and crew, 125 at the Pentagon, and 19 hijackers. It was soon determined that the attacks were carried out as part of a "Holy War" against the U.S. The terrorists belonged to al-Qaida, a fanatical Islamic organization, based in Afghanistan and led by Saudi expatriate Osama bin Laden. Within a short time, U.S. President George W. Bush and British Prime Tony Blair had initiated a prolonged, worldwide fight against terrorism. In the months to follow, people everywhere began to come to terms with a world in which global terrorism would be a significant threat for the foreseeable future. Web:
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo For some years before 1846, there was tension between Mexicans and Americans living in the region that later became the state of Texas. In 1846, upon the annexation of Texas by the United States, a war broke out between the United States and Mexico. The Mexican War continued until 1848, when the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. This treaty granted the United States possession of the provinces and territories of Texas, New Mexico, California and other significant portions of the southwest. In return, the United States was to pay Mexico $15 million and assume $3.25 million in American claims against Mexico. The U.S. also recognized prior land grants in the southwest and offered citizenship to any Mexicans living in the area. Clearly, this document was instrumental in defining the territory of modern day America. Web:
Treaty of Paris On September 3, 1783, about two years after the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the hostilities. The Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the Thirteen Colonies and set forth what territory the British would cede: the Americans received huge territories in North America; the Spanish received Florida and regained West Indian properties; and France regained St. Lucia, Tobago, Senegal, Gorée, and East Indian properties. Web:
United States Bill of Rights On December 15, 1791, the Bill of Rights became law in the United States. The Bill of Rights is a set of 10 amendments made to the U.S. Constitution (adopted in 1787). The Bill of Rights sets out various freedoms that all citizens of the United States are guaranteed. For example, the first part of the Bill of Rights guarantees freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition the government. This is one of the most important documents in American history, and if you have never read it, you may want to spend some time seeing exactly what it contains. Web:
United States Declaration of Independence The U.S. Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776. On July 4, 1776, it was adopted by the Thirteen Colonies as an announcement of their separation from Great Britain and their creation of the United States of America. The Declaration of Independence portrays what the Americans considered an ideal government and lists particular grievances that went unanswered for too long. The American Revolution lasted for eight years and finally ended with the United States keeping their independence and their territories. If you would like to feel the same spirit as Jefferson did when he wrote it, print your own copy of the Declaration of Independence, read it through, and add your signature to the list at the end. Web:
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